Caribbean Percussion Traditions in Miami
Drumming and Related Arts from
the Bahamas, Cuba, Guyana,
Haiti, Puerto Rico and
Trinidad
Over the past four decades Miami has been transformed from a predominantly
tourist-oriented southern city into an international metropolis in which
well over one third of the population is of Caribbean descent. One expression
of this transformation is the proliferation of nightclubs and radio stations
that feature Caribbean popular music styles, such as salsa, merengue,
reggae, soca and konpa. But Miamifs Caribbean musical heritage extends
far beyond the well-known artistes who perform and record in these popular
styles. In more secluded settings and at special festive occasions in
Caribbean neighborhoods, one can hear the sounds of an immense variety
of drums and other percussion instruments. Percussion instruments generate
fundamental rhythms for Miamifs Caribbean communities: rhythms for moving,
communicating and experiencing the world. Their sounds constitute complex
musical languages which, though often immediately appealing to outsiders,
require years to fully learn and understand. In many cases, these musical
languages are interrelated with systems of religious or philosophical
knowledge. So, apprentice percussionists must acquire from masters both
musical skills and bodies of wisdom that have been perpetuated for generations.
Though only a small number of individuals become accomplished percussionists,
percussion traditions carry cultural significance for many people and
are of value to anyone who wishes to obtain a deeper understanding of
Caribbean history and artistic achievements.
Orisha worship is the traditional religion of the Yoruba people of West
Africa. Yorubas brought their religion to Cuba, and it has since spread
to Miami and other cities in the United States. Percussion is a crucial
component of the religion, in that it is the vehicle through which devotees
communicate with the orishas (deities). For the most important religious
ceremonies, an ensemble of three double-headed batá drums is employed
and frequently augmented by an achere (a small gourd rattle). Batá
drums are ritually consecrated and are particularly pleasing to the
orishas. In ceremonies where there is a less rigorous protocol, other
instruments can be used, such as shekerés
(large gourd rattles that are strung with beads or seeds), conga
drums and a guataca (a hoe blade or cowbell played with a striker).
Orisha percussion generally accompanies singing in which deities are praised
and invited to descend upon their devotees. Though most Orisha percussionists
play mainly for religious ceremonies, some occasionally appear in nightclub
shows, museum programs or similar settings. Orisha
percussionists believe that, when they perform in secular contexts,
they help audiences gain a new perspective on a religion that is often
misunderstood.
Puerto Rican and Cuban Secular Percussion
Two of the best-known forms of music from Puerto Rico are bomba and plena. The African-derived bomba features highly expressive dancing and singing, traditionally accompanied by two barrel-shaped bomba drums, a cuá (any hard surface that is struck with a pair of sticks) and maracas (gourd rattles). Plena songs, valued for their commentary on Puerto Rican life, are typically performed by an ensemble that includes three or more panderos (small frame drums), a cuá, a güiro (gourd scraper), and one or more non-percussive instruments, such as a sinfonia (harmonica) or guitar. In Miami bombas and plenas are played and sung at birthday parties, Christmas celebrations and other community gatherings. They are also presented by ensembles in choreographed shows.
A major genre of Afro-Cuban secular music and dance is rumba, of which
there are three main forms: the guaguancó and yambú (couple
dances) and the colombia (a solo male dance). The standard rumba ensemble
consists of three conga drums, claves (two wooden sticks struck together)
and a guagua (a piece of bamboo struck with two sticks). Cajones
(wooden boxes) are typically substituted for congas when playing the yambú.
All three forms of rumba feature a lead singer and a chorus. In Miami,
rumbas are played in both home descargas (jam sessions) and in choreographed
shows.
At the heart of Haitian percussion in Miami are the rich African-derived
religious and artistic traditions of Vodou. In Vodou
ceremonies, drums and other percussion instruments enable devotees
to establish contact with the lwa (deities). The lwa are divided into
several nations, the two main groupings of which are Rada and Petwo. This
basic division is reflected in drum ensembles. The three drums of the
Rada ensemble have cowhide covers that are attached
with wooden pegs, while the two or three drums of the Petwo ensemble have
goatskin covers attached with cords. Petwo drums have a sharper sound,
which reflects the aggressive temperament of their lwa. Other Vodou instruments
are the ogan (a piece of iron played with a metal striker), the tcha-tcha
(a small rattle), the ason (a calabash that is
covered with a mesh of beads) and Cuban congas. In Miami Vodou percussion
is used not only in ceremonies but in the staged
presentations of misik rasin (roots music) bands and folkloric troupes.
By drawing on folk music and other traditional arts, these groups create
performances that celebrate Haitian culture and comment on the political
experiences of the Haitian people.
The instruments that North Americans usually refer to as “steel
drums” are called “pans” in Trinidad, the country in which
they were invented. The making of pans is a complex process in which a
craftsman first pounds the bottom of an oil or chemical drum into a concave
shape. On this surface individual sections are then grooved to form distinct
notes. There are several types of pans, each with a specific range of
notes, in a standard steelband. The tenor or lead
pan is fashioned from a single container, the surface of which is
divided into approximately 30 notes; while a bass is often made from six
full-size containers, each with three notes. In between are other pans,
such as the double seconds, guitars, cellos and tenor basses. Steelbands
also include a drum set, pieces of iron played
with metal strikers and other percussion instruments. In Miami steelbands
based in the Trinidadian community play calypsos and other types of music
at the West Indian Carnival on Columbus Day weekend
and at various other festive occasions. Meanwhile, individual pan players
often find work in South Floridafs tourist and private party markets.
For these performances, one or two pans are typically combined with non-percussive
instruments, such as an electric guitar, bass or keyboard.
At the religious and social events of Trinidadians and Guyanese of East
Indian descent in South Florida, the double-headed dholak
drum is one of the most popular musical instruments. The dholak is generally
played in an ensemble that also includes a harmonium (a small hand-pumped
organ) and a dhantal (a metal rod played with
a striker). Other percussion instruments, such as the mangeera and the
jhal (different sized pairs of cymbals), are frequently played as well.
Dholak-based ensembles accompany group or solo
singing at Hindu religious services, weddings and festivals, such as Divali
and Phagwa. Among the musical genres performed are bhajans (hymns) and
“classical” songs that are distinctively Caribbean. Another
type of Indo-Caribbean percussion is the tassa ensemble,
which includes conical tassa drums, a double-headed
bass drum and a jhanj (a large pair of cymbals). Tassa drums are made
by stretching goatskin covers over clay shells. Before being played, they
must be heated to tighten their skins and raise their tone to an optimal
pitch. In South Florida, various tassa “hands” or rhythms are
performed for wedding processionals, parties and Hindu festivals.
Junkanoo music is associated with street parades
in the Bahamas on Boxing Day (December 26) and New Yearfs Day. At the
foundation of the music are goombay drums, which are made by attaching
goatskins to metal containers. Before a performance, these drums must
be heated to tighten their skins and heighten their tones. Other key instruments
in Junkanoo groups are tom-toms (tenor drums
from trap sets) and cowbells, which are played
in pairs (one or more in each hand). Drummers and “bellers”
also blow whistles, while other group members play wind instruments, such
as “foghorns.” Though Miamifs Junkanoo groups periodically perform
at various functions outside the Bahamian community, two of their annual
highlights are the Goombay Festival, which is held each June in the old
Bahamian section of Coconut Grove, and the Martin Luther King Day parade
in West Perrine. The fact that the major Junkanoo events in the Miami
area and the Bahamas occur on different dates enables many musicians from
both sides of the Florida Straits to travel back and forth for performances.
As is the case with other Caribbean percussionists in Miami, local Junkanoo
musicians remain closely linked to the traditions of their home country.
An exhibition at the Historical Museum of Southern Florida, May 23 - October 26, 1997.
